“A Man Speaking to Men: Wordsworth’s Poetry Explained”

 

Understanding Romanticism Through Wordsworth's "Preface to Lyrical Ballads"

                                                                                             -From Prof. Dilip Barad sir's video sources 

This Blog is a part of William Wordsworth's "Preface to Lyrical Ballads" assigned by Dr. and Prof. Dilip Barad sir under Bridge Course on William Wordsworth 

The Lyrical Ballads, first published in 1798 as an advertisement and later expanded in 1802, stands as a foundational document for Romantic poetry. It marks a significant departure from the prevailing poetic tradition of Classicism (or Neoclassicism), offering new insights into poetry, the poet’s role, and the very nature of poetic language. Wordsworth’s "Preface" is considered a manifesto of the Romantic movement and introduces revolutionary ideas about the emotional and subjective nature of poetry.

                                              Mind Map Classicism & Romanticism

This Video is generated with the help of NotebookLM

1. Classicism vs. Romanticism: A Fundamental Shift

             The 18th century was dominated by Classicism, a poetic tradition that prioritized intellect and reason, emphasized restraint, and looked to the classical masters (like Aristotle and Plato) for inspiration. Classicism focused on urban life, objectivity, and formality in expression.

In contrast, Romanticism, championed by Wordsworth, was a radical break from these principles. Some of the key differences are:

Imagination became the guiding principle, replacing the rational intellect.

Poets began embracing liberty and freedom, allowing for a more emotional and passionate expression.

The influence of classical masters was replaced by inspiration from nature and rustic life.

The focus shifted from urban settings to countryside and rural people, celebrating their lives and emotions.

Subjectivity became a core feature of poetry, with an emphasis on the poet's personal feelings and experiences, in stark contrast to the objective, detached tone of classical poetry.

This philosophical shift was influenced by broader societal changes, particularly the French Revolution, which stirred desires for individual freedom, equality, and a more democratic society.

2. Wordsworth's Poetic Creed: Emotion Recalled in Tranquility

         One of the most famous definitions of poetry comes from Wordsworth’s "Preface", where he describes it as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings," originating from "emotion recollected in tranquility."

This idea highlights the subjective and emotional core of Romantic poetry. Wordsworth illustrates this through his poem "Daffodils". The poem narrates the poet’s past experience of wandering among a field of daffodils and being filled with joy at the sight. Later, in a “vacant or pensive mood”—a state of tranquility—he recollects the scene. This recollection brings back the same joy, as the "inward eye" flashes the memory, and his heart once again fills with the same emotion he felt in the moment.

This shift in tense, from past experience to present emotion, showcases how powerful feelings can be revisited and re-experienced in a calm, reflective state. Thus, memory and emotion become the fuel for poetry, according to Wordsworth.

3. What is a Poet? A Man Speaking to Men

In his "Preface", Wordsworth defines a poet as "a man speaking to men." Romantic poets, while deeply inspired by nature and emotion, were not seen as mystical or otherworldly figures. Rather, they were ordinary humans with heightened abilities.

Wordsworth believed that poets are not from another world, but they possess:

A livelier sensibility,

Greater enthusiasm and tenderness,

A deeper understanding of human nature,

A more comprehensive soul, and

A unique ability to create volitions, passions, and situations that wouldn’t otherwise exist, almost like an imaginative power.

In essence, the poet is a heightened human, more attuned to life’s spirit, capable of creating emotional and imaginative works that reflect the essence of human experience.

4. Poetic Diction: The Language of Common Men

Perhaps one of the most radical elements of the "Preface" is Wordsworth’s call for a new kind of poetic diction. Wordsworth famously rejected the ornate, erudite language used by the Neoclassicists, which he felt was artificial, inaccessible, and unnecessary.

Instead, he advocated for “the language really used by men,” specifically the humble language of common people and rustic life. Wordsworth argued that the emotions expressed in the speech of ordinary people were genuine and closer to reality than the polished, abstract language used in classical poetry.

However, this idea was not without its controversies. Coleridge, Wordsworth’s friend and fellow poet, questioned the practicality of this approach. Coleridge pointed out that while Wordsworth claimed to use the language of common men, his characters (like Michael the farmer) were often exceptional individuals, not necessarily representative of the average person.

Nevertheless, this idea laid the foundation for a new form of poetry that was more accessible, more rooted in everyday life, and more expressive of real emotions.

Conclusion: The Legacy of Wordsworth’s "Preface"

Wordsworth’s "Preface to Lyrical Ballads" set the stage for the Romantic movement by emphasizing emotion, nature, the common man, and a genuine, accessible language for poetry. It rejected the classical ideals of restraint, formality, and objectivity in favor of a new poetic vision that embraced subjectivity, passion, and the freedom of expression. This manifesto not only transformed poetry but also marked a cultural shift toward valuing individual experience and emotion over tradition and intellectualism, which profoundly influenced future generations of poets and thinkers.

Questions and answer

Why Does Wordsworth Ask "What is a Poet?" Rather Than "Who is a Poet?" – A Deep Dive into the Essence of Poetry

William Wordsworth's question, "What is a poet?" in his "Preface to Lyrical Ballads", is a deliberate choice that invites readers to probe the nature of poetry itself, rather than simply identifying poets as individuals. This subtle yet profound distinction is not just a linguistic one, but a philosophical approach that aligns with his overarching Romantic ideals. In this blog, we will explore why Wordsworth opts for the word "what" instead of "who" and how this reflects his radical vision for poetry, its purpose, and its relationship with both the poet and the audience.

1. "What is a Poet?" – A Philosophical Inquiry into the Nature of Poetry

In traditional literary thought, the question "Who is a poet?" would seek to define the individual their personal characteristics, their identity, and their role in society. However, by asking "What is a poet?," Wordsworth shifts the focus away from personal identification and instead delves into the essence of poetry itself. He doesn't want to merely label a person as a poet; he wants to explore the fundamental qualities and attributes that make someone a poet.

For Wordsworth, poetry isn't about the status or title one holds but rather the deeper qualities within a person that enable them to express universal human emotions, connect with nature, and translate feelings into language. He is, in essence, asking us to reflect on the core purpose and function of poetry not just who writes it, but why it exists and what it can achieve.

2. A Break from Classicism: Poets as Ordinary People, Not Superhuman Creatures

The question "What is a poet?" also reflects Wordsworth’s rejection of the Neoclassical ideals that viewed poets as almost divine or exceptional figures. Classical poets like Homer or Virgil were often regarded as infallible geniuses, standing apart from ordinary people due to their extraordinary talents and wisdom. Wordsworth wanted to dismantle that view. In his Romantic vision, the poet is not an exalted being but a heightened version of the common man someone who is more attuned to the emotions, experiences, and truths that everyone shares.

So, when Wordsworth asks, "What is a poet?" he is not asking about the identity of the poet but rather about how poetry functions and what makes a person capable of writing poetry that resonates with humanity. In this sense, he is pushing back against the elitism that often surrounded poetry and suggesting that anyone who is deeply in tune with nature, emotion, and human experience has the potential to be a poet.

3. The Poet as a “Man Speaking to Men” – Connecting with Humanity

In the "Preface to Lyrical Ballads," Wordsworth famously describes a poet as "a man speaking to men." This statement is more than just a definition; it’s a call to reconnect poetry with the ordinary human experience. By asking "What is a poet?," he invites readers to reflect on the role of poetry in society: to communicate genuine emotion and human truth, not just lofty, intellectual abstractions.

Wordsworth rejects the idea that poetry must be distant or inaccessible. In his view, the poet is someone who taps into shared human emotions love, grief, joy, and wonder and speaks to others in a language that is authentic and genuine. The poet does not stand on a pedestal but rather remains grounded, communicating deep truths that everyone can understand. This is why he emphasizes emotion and sensation as the core components of poetry, believing that these are universal to all people, regardless of their social class or intellectual status.

By focusing on "what" a poet is, Wordsworth points to these fundamental qualities of the poet that make them a voice for the collective human experience, rather than an isolated genius writing only for a select audience.

4. The Poet's Emotional and Sensory Sensibility – A Higher Degree of Feeling

For Wordsworth, poetry is not about the intellectual or rational mind it is about the emotional and sensory experience. He believed that poets possess a heightened sensitivity to the world around them, allowing them to see the beauty, drama, and significance in everyday life. Wordsworth writes that poets have "more lively sensibility" and a "deeper knowledge of human nature."

The question "What is a poet?" also implies a deeper inquiry into the capacity of the poet to perceive the world differently. It suggests that poets experience emotions and sensations in a more vivid, intense, and complex manner than most people. The poet is capable of transforming these raw, personal experiences into poetry that speaks to others, transcending individual feeling to reflect a universal emotional truth. Thus, asking "What is a poet?" allows Wordsworth to emphasize the unique emotional faculties that poets possess, which make their works resonate so deeply with readers.

5. Poetry as the Voice of Nature and the Common Man

One of Wordsworth’s most radical ideas is that the language of poetry should be the language of common men. By asking "What is a poet?," he also signals a shift in how poetry interacts with nature and the common people. In Wordsworth’s eyes, the poet does not rely on artificial, grandiose language (as often found in Neoclassical poetry) but rather on the simple, authentic language of everyday people, especially those who live close to nature.

The poet’s task, then, is to articulate profound truths about human life and nature using language that is accessible, relatable, and rooted in reality. Wordsworth’s Romantics were keen on presenting the lives of ordinary people in their poetry celebrating rural existence, simple joys, and the emotions of the everyday man. The question "What is a poet?" allows Wordsworth to discuss the role of the poet in society: not as an elite figure who writes for the aristocracy but as a voice for the common folk, one who speaks in the language of the people, for the people.

6. The Poetic Imagination – A Bridge Between the Self and the Universe

Finally, Wordsworth’s question, "What is a poet?," can be understood as an exploration of the imaginative power that poets possess. In his view, the poet is someone who can bridge the internal world of the self with the external world of nature and humanity. By tapping into the deepest recesses of their own feelings, experiences, and imagination, poets can create works that speak not just to themselves but to the shared human condition.

This imaginative power, for Wordsworth, is what allows poets to see the world in a way that others cannot. It gives them the ability to capture the profound truths hidden within ordinary moments and transform them into something universally meaningful. The question "What is a poet?" invites readers to think about how poetry functions as a medium of connection between the poet and nature, between the poet and the people, and between the poet and the emotions that bind us all.

Conclusion: A Revolutionary Question for a Revolutionary Age

By asking "What is a poet?" instead of "Who is a poet?," Wordsworth is not just defining a profession or a person. He is challenging the very nature of poetry itself and inviting readers to reconsider what makes someone a poet. For Wordsworth, poetry is not about the identity of the poet, but about the purpose and power of the poet’s work: to communicate deep, universal emotions, to speak to the common man, and to connect humanity with the natural world.

In doing so, Wordsworth opened the door to a new era in poetry, one that was rooted in the individual and the emotional, yet still sought to speak to the universal truths of life. The question "What is a poet?" invites us all to consider how poetry can touch the core of human experience, transcending time and place to become a voice for us all.

How Does Wordsworth Define Poetry? An Analysis of His Poetic Philosophy

William Wordsworth, a central figure in the Romantic movement, reshaped the way we think about poetry. In his "Preface to Lyrical Ballads", he famously defined poetry as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings," which originates from "emotion recollected in tranquility." This definition doesn't just describe poetry; it reflects Wordsworth's broader poetic philosophy and the heart of Romanticism itself.

Wordsworth’s Definition of Poetry: Emotion and Reflection

At its core, poetry for Wordsworth is the result of intense emotions experienced spontaneously. But what makes it poetry, according to him, is not just the emotion itself it’s the act of reflecting on that emotion in a state of tranquility. The poet, after feeling deeply, recollects the emotion in a calm, thoughtful state, allowing the original feeling to be refined and shaped into something universal.

This idea highlights the importance of memory and reflection in poetry, transforming raw emotion into art that resonates with others. The poet’s mind, through tranquility, refines and shapes the initial emotion, creating a connection with readers who might not have shared the exact same experience.

Poetry, Nature, and Simplicity

For Wordsworth, nature plays a central role in poetry. His works often draw inspiration from the natural world, which he believed had the power to evoke deep emotional responses. In line with this, his poetry uses simple, natural language, making it accessible to everyone not just the educated elite. Wordsworth rejected the ornate diction of classical poetry, believing that the language of ordinary people, especially those close to nature, was more genuine and emotionally charged.

Analyzing "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud"

Let's apply Wordsworth’s poetic philosophy to his famous poem, "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" (also known as "Daffodils"). The poem begins with the spontaneous overflow of emotion—the poet feels lonely, disconnected from the world. However, the real power of the poem lies in the recollection of the daffodils, which he recalls in a moment of tranquility. The initial emotion of solitude is transformed into a renewed sense of joy, as the memory of the dancing daffodils fills him with positive energy. This shift shows how emotion recollected in tranquility can turn a fleeting feeling into something beautiful and timeless.

Wordsworth’s Philosophy in Action

Wordsworth’s definition of poetry as emotion recollected in tranquility is not just theoretical; it’s a guiding principle in his own work. Through simple language, nature, and emotional recollection, he demonstrates how poetry can convey deep personal experiences and turn them into universal truths.

In his poem "Daffodils", he perfectly captures the Romantic ideal of finding meaning in nature and expressing it through genuine, heartfelt emotion. For Wordsworth, poetry was a way to bridge the gap between the individual and the universal, making emotion something shared by all.

Conclusion: The Lasting Impact of Wordsworth’s Definition

Wordsworth’s definition of poetry still resonates today because it emphasizes the importance of emotion, memory, and nature. His belief that poetry should come from genuine, heartfelt feelings and be expressed in simple, accessible language revolutionized how poetry was written and understood. His works, especially poems like "Daffodils", remain a testament to the power of poetry to connect deeply with readers, regardless of time or place. Through emotion, memory, and nature, Wordsworth shows us that poetry is not just art it is a reflection of the human soul.

Wordsworth's Views on Poetic Diction: A Call for Simplicity and Authenticity

In his "Preface to Lyrical Ballads", Wordsworth critiques the traditional, elaborate poetic diction that had dominated English poetry. He states, “A language was thus insensibly produced, differing materially from the real language of men in any situation.” This remark highlights his frustration with the artificial, ornamental language used by poets before him language that, according to Wordsworth, no longer reflected the genuine, everyday speech of people.

The Problem with Traditional Poetic Diction

Wordsworth is pointing out that poets of his time, influenced by Neoclassicism, had created a “heightened” poetic language that was far removed from natural speech. This language was often filled with flourishes, embellishments, and rhetorical excesses. For example, phrases like “majestic waves” or “heavenly muse” sounded impressive, but they were far from the simple, authentic language that reflected real human emotions and experiences.

Wordsworth’s Ideal: A Return to the Language of Common People

Wordsworth’s rebellion against this artificial poetic language stems from his belief that true poetry should speak the language of ordinary people. In his view, the language of common men, especially those living in rural areas, was closer to the truth. It expressed raw, genuine emotion, unsullied by the pretensions of high society.

In his poems, Wordsworth often uses simple, natural language to depict the thoughts and feelings of rural folk. Take, for instance, his poem "Michael", where he describes the life of a humble farmer in straightforward language. This language, while simple, is rich in emotional depth and meaning. By writing in this way, Wordsworth makes the emotions in his poetry accessible to all, ensuring that they resonate on a universal level.

Illustrating Wordsworth's View Through "Daffodils"

Wordsworth's "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" (or "Daffodils") provides a perfect illustration of his poetic approach. The poem is written in plain, clear language, free from the ornate phrases that characterized earlier poetry. Wordsworth doesn't use flowery metaphors or complex structures. Instead, he simply describes the daffodils he encounters in nature and the joy they bring to him. The simplicity of the language mirrors the directness and genuineness of the poet’s emotions.

The Impact of Wordsworth’s Poetic Diction

By returning to simple, everyday language, Wordsworth democratizes poetry. His belief was that poetry should be accessible to all readers, not just the elite or well-educated. The poet’s mission was to connect with people, to express emotions that were universal and shared by all. Wordsworth’s poetic diction is a powerful statement against the artificiality that had previously dominated literature.

Conclusion: A Revolution in Poetic Expression

Through his critique of poetic diction, Wordsworth changed the landscape of English poetry. His insistence on natural, common language not only made poetry more relatable but also brought the common man into literature, allowing poetry to capture everyday emotions in all their authenticity. By doing so, Wordsworth’s work remains a cornerstone of Romanticism, where emotion, simplicity, and genuine expression became the heart of poetry.

The Poet as a “More Comprehensive Soul”: Wordsworth’s Vision of the Poet

In his Preface to Lyrical Ballads, William Wordsworth famously asserts that,

“A poet has a greater knowledge of human nature, and a more comprehensive soul, than one supposed to be common among mankind.”

This idea is at the heart of Wordsworth’s Romantic philosophy, where the poet is not merely a writer or observer but someone deeply attuned to the emotional and spiritual experiences of humanity.

The Poet: A Special Yet Ordinary Human

Wordsworth does not believe the poet is a god-like figure or divinely chosen. Rather, a poet is “a man speaking to men” an ordinary person. But what sets the poet apart is degree, not kind. The poet feels more deeply, observes more keenly, and reflects more profoundly. Wordsworth lists several qualities that define a true poet:

• More lively sensibility – the ability to feel emotion more intensely.

• Greater knowledge of human nature – a deep understanding of what moves people.

• A more comprehensive soul – the capacity to connect with the joys and sufferings of all.

• Imaginative power – to create feelings or situations beyond one’s own experiences.

These traits make the poet not just a mirror of the world, but a visionary interpreter of it.

The Poet as Emotional Translator

For Wordsworth, the poet's role is to take personal emotion and translate it into a universal human experience. In this way, the poet becomes a kind of emotional bridge turning the individual into the collective, the personal into the poetic.

Take the poem “The Solitary Reaper” for example. Wordsworth sees a young girl singing in the fields. He doesn’t understand the actual words of her song, but his imaginative empathy allows him to fill in the emotional depth. He senses “natural sorrow, loss or pain,” and transforms this fleeting moment into a timeless reflection on human feeling.

The Poet and Society

Wordsworth also believed that the poet had a moral and emotional responsibility. In a world growing increasingly industrial and disconnected from nature, the poet serves as a reminder of human feeling, simplicity, and connection to nature. While science may analyze the world, the poet feels it.

Conclusion: The Soul of the Age

Wordsworth's claim that the poet has “a more comprehensive soul” reflects his belief in poetry as a moral and emotional compass for society. The poet, in his view, must understand the depths of human nature not just to write beautifully, but to help others see, feel, and remember what it means to be fully human.

In a time of change, Wordsworth’s poet is not just a writer, but a guide to the inner life a voice that echoes what we all feel, but few can say.

“A Man Speaking to Men”: Wordsworth’s Vision of the Poet

In his Preface to Lyrical Ballads, William Wordsworth famously describes a poet as:

“a man speaking to men: a man, it is true, endowed with more lively sensibility, more enthusiasm and tenderness.”

This deceptively simple line is central to Wordsworth’s Romantic vision of poetry. Here, the poet is not placed on a pedestal, separated from ordinary life instead, he is deeply human, grounded in the same emotions, struggles, and experiences as everyone else. Yet, what sets him apart is depth of feeling and perception.

A Poet Is Not Superhuman, Just More Deeply Human

Wordsworth’s poet is an ordinary man, not a mystical or elite figure. But he experiences life with greater intensity. He feels more his “lively sensibility” means he is acutely responsive to the joys and sorrows of the world. He notices the beauty in the everyday and is moved by what others might overlook.

This emotional sensitivity allows the poet to act as a kind of translator of feelings expressing what many feel but cannot articulate. His “enthusiasm and tenderness” give him the ability to empathize deeply, to connect with others’ experiences, and to give voice to universal truths through personal expression.

“Speaking to Men”: Poetry as Communication, Not Decoration

Wordsworth believed poetry should not be cloaked in artificial, grandiose language. The poet should speak in the “real language of men”, making poetry accessible, honest, and emotionally true. He saw the poet as one among the people, whose task is to awaken feeling, not just impress with style.

In this way, the poet becomes a bridge between the personal and the communal, the emotional and the expressive. He feels deeply, but he also communicates clearly.

Conclusion: The Poet as Emotional Witness

Wordsworth’s portrayal of the poet as “a man speaking to men” redefines poetry as a deeply human endeavor. The poet is not above the world, but within it feeling, observing, and expressing with an intensity and tenderness that invites others to feel too.

In a world often distracted or numb, the poet’s voice reminds us of what it means to feel fully, live deeply, and connect truly.

Poetry as a Pulse of the Heart:

 Wordsworth’s Living Definition 

When William Wordsworth set out to redefine poetry in his Preface to Lyrical Ballads, he didn’t just give us a definition he gave us a heartbeat, a soul, a living pulse of what poetry truly is. According to him:

“Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility.”

At first glance, it sounds poetic in itself. But read it again. This isn’t just a technical description it’s a philosophy of feeling, a revolution in words, and a declaration that poetry begins in the soul.

 The Emotion Behind the Ink

For Wordsworth, poetry doesn’t begin with a pen it begins with a moment: a sudden rush of feeling while watching daffodils dance, hearing a girl sing in the field, or wandering alone through nature. It’s that emotional spark raw and alive that sits with the poet long after the moment passes.

But unlike a fleeting outburst, the poet doesn’t rush to write it down. Instead, he waits. He reflects. In a quiet moment a moment of tranquility that emotion comes back, softened by memory, sharpened by thought. It is then, and only then, that it becomes poetry.

This is the alchemy of Wordsworth's poetic process:

Feel deeply → Remember gently → Write truthfully.

More Than Rhyme: A Philosophy of Feeling

Wordsworth’s definition of poetry reflects everything he believed about art:

• That poetry should speak the language of real people, not distant elites.

• That nature is not just scenery, but a spiritual teacher.

• That the ordinary holds extraordinary emotional power.

• And most importantly, that poetry must be authentic rooted in true, human feeling.

To Wordsworth, a good poem wasn’t made of fancy words or strict rules it was made of honesty, emotion, and a deep connection to the world.

 "Daffodils": Poetry in Action

Want proof? Read “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud”. It's the perfect embodiment of his creed. The poet sees a field of daffodils and is filled with joy. But the poem isn't written in that moment. It’s written later, when the memory returns “in tranquility,” making his heart dance once more.

That dance of memory and emotion that’s the very soul of poetry, according to Wordsworth.

 Conclusion: Poetry as Living Memory

Wordsworth didn’t just redefine poetry he relocated it. He took it down from the ivory tower and planted it among the flowers, in the hearts of ordinary people, and in the quiet corners of the mind. His definition is more than words it’s a way of seeing, a way of feeling, and a way of being.

Poetry, for Wordsworth, is not just what we write.

It’s what we live, remember, and rediscover again and again with every beat of the heart.

References-

Wordsworth, William. Preface to Lyrical Ballads. 1802.

Reprinted in Lyrical Ballads with a Few Other Poems, edited by R. L. Brett and A. R. Jones, Routledge, 1991.

Wordsworth, William. I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud. 1807.

Poetry Foundation, www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/45521/i-wandered-lonely-as-a-cloud

. Accessed 29 Aug. 2025.

Gill, Stephen. William Wordsworth: A Life. Oxford University Press, 1989.

Abrams, M. H. The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition. Oxford University Press, 1953.

“Prof Dilip Barad Blog William Wordsworth.” blogspot.com, https://blog.dilipbarad.com/2014/09/short-learning-video-on-wordsworths.html. Accessed 29 August 2025.

“Mapping Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel”

“Seeing Absalom and Achitophel Clearly”

 

 This blog is part of a Thinking Activity based on Prof. Dilip Barad’s guidance, focusing on John Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel. It explores how Dryden uses biblical allegory and satire to comment on the Exclusion Crisis and political tensions of Restoration England. Through character analysis, historical context, and thematic study, the blog connects literature with politics, showing how poetry can serve both as art and political commentary.

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Absalom and Achitophel Mind Map

Basic introduction

Absalom and Achitophel (1681) by John Dryden is one of the greatest works of political satire in English literature. Written in heroic couplets, the poem uses a biblical allegory to comment on the political crisis of the time, known as the Exclusion Crisis. Dryden retells the Old Testament story of King David and his rebellious son Absalom, who is persuaded by the cunning Achitophel to rise against his father. In this allegory, King David represents Charles II of England, Absalom stands for the Duke of Monmouth (Charles’s illegitimate but Protestant son), and Achitophel symbolizes the Earl of Shaftesbury, who encouraged Monmouth to claim the throne. The central issue was whether the Catholic Duke of York (later James II) should be excluded from the line of succession. Dryden, being Poet Laureate and loyal to the monarchy, supported Charles II and attacked his opponents through sharp wit, irony, and satire. The poem not only defends royal authority but also exposes the dangers of ambition, flattery, and rebellion. More than a historical document, Absalom and Achitophel remains a powerful example of how literature can serve as political propaganda while also achieving high artistic value.

Author and Publication

Absalom and Achitophel was written by John Dryden, the most important poet and critic of the Restoration period. He is remembered as the first official Poet Laureate of England and a master of satire. This poem is one of his greatest works and shows how he used wit and poetry to deal with serious politics. It is a famous satirical poem, written in heroic couplets (two rhyming lines with the same meter, giving the poem rhythm and balance). The poem was first published in 1681, during the Exclusion Crisis, when people were debating whether King Charles II’s Catholic brother should be allowed to inherit the throne. Its genre is verse satire, which means Dryden used the beauty of verse to expose the dangers of political ambition and trickery.

Second Part

A second part of Absalom and Achitophel came out in 1682. This part was mostly written by Nahum Tate, a fellow poet, who continued the story and characters of the first part. However, Dryden himself contributed around 200 lines, which are often considered the best passages in the second part. In these lines, Dryden turned his satire directly against his literary rivals and critics, attacking them with biting humor and sharp portraits. This shows that the poem was not only about politics but also about Dryden’s own place in the world of literature, where he defended his style and authority against competitors.

Historical Context of Absalom and Achitophel 

1. The Restoration of Charles II (1660):
   The monarchy was restored in 1660 after nearly two decades of political chaos. During the English Civil War (1642–1651), Charles I was executed and England was ruled by Parliament and Oliver Cromwell. His rule was strict, Puritan, and unpopular with many. When Cromwell died, his son failed to govern, and the monarchy was restored under Charles II. The Restoration was welcomed with joy, as it promised stability and cultural revival. However, deep divisions between Royalists and Parliamentarians, Anglicans and Puritans remained. These tensions shaped the political environment in which Dryden wrote.

2. The Question of Succession:
   A key issue was succession after Charles II. He and his queen, Catherine of Braganza, had no legitimate heirs, despite Charles fathering many illegitimate children. The throne would therefore go to his brother, James, Duke of York. The problem: James was Catholic in a country where most people were Protestant. England’s history (Henry VIII’s Reformation, Elizabeth I’s Protestant rule, and memories of the Marian persecutions under Catholic Queen Mary) made many fear a Catholic monarch would destroy Protestant liberties. Thus, the succession question turned into a national crisis.

3. The Growth of Political Parties:
   Out of this crisis grew the first true political parties in England:

   • The Whigs, led by Shaftesbury, opposed James and wanted to exclude him from the throne. They often appealed to Protestant fears, warning of “Popery” (Catholic influence) and “arbitrary government.” They were associated with religious dissenters and a broader idea of parliamentary power.

   • The Tories, on the other hand, supported the king and the natural line of succession. They argued that hereditary monarchy was God-given and that Parliament had no authority to alter it. They were closely allied with the Church of England and traditional Royalist ideals.
     This Whig-Tory divide laid the foundations for Britain’s modern party politics.

4. The Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681):
   The political battle reached its peak in the Exclusion Crisis. Parliament tried several times to pass the Exclusion Bill that would block James from inheriting the throne. Charles II, determined to defend his brother’s right, dissolved Parliament three times between 1679 and 1681 to stop the bill. The crisis created enormous tension—Londoners marched in protest, anti-Catholic riots spread, and the fear of conspiracy was everywhere. The king’s supporters saw the Whigs as dangerous rebels, while the Whigs painted the king’s camp as pro-Catholic tyrants.

5. The Popularity of the Duke of Monmouth:
   In this tense situation, the Duke of Monmouth, Charles II’s illegitimate son, became the Whigs’ hope. He was Protestant, young, charismatic, and beloved by many people. Crowds cheered him wherever he went, and rumors spread that Charles might secretly legitimize him. But legally, Monmouth had no claim. Still, the Whigs promoted him as an alternative to James, while Tories saw him as a pawn of ambition. Later, in 1685, Monmouth would actually rebel against James II (the Monmouth Rebellion) and be executed, proving Dryden’s warnings in Absalom and Achitophel prophetic.

6. The Role of the Earl of Shaftesbury:
   Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, was at the center of the Whig cause. A brilliant but controversial politician, he shifted alliances several times in his career. During the crisis, he became Monmouth’s strongest backer, plotting ways to secure him the throne. Shaftesbury was a master at manipulating public opinion, spreading fear of Catholic plots, and encouraging unrest. To Charles II, Shaftesbury was like a snake in his court a man whose ambition threatened national peace. In Dryden’s poem, Shaftesbury appears as Achitophel, the cunning biblical adviser who lures Absalom into rebellion.

7. The Political Use of Literature:
   In the Restoration period, pamphlets, poems, and plays were the media of politics. They shaped public opinion as strongly as speeches in Parliament. Whig writers attacked Catholicism and accused the court of tyranny. Tory writers defended the king and portrayed Whigs as disloyal and dangerous. Literature became a battlefield, and poets acted like journalists or propagandists. Dryden, being the most powerful poet of his time, played a crucial role by giving the king’s side not just arguments but also literary prestige.

8. Dryden as Poet Laureate:
   John Dryden was made Poet Laureate in 1668 and later became Historiographer Royal, meaning he was officially tasked with defending the monarchy through literature. By 1681, the political situation was so heated that Charles needed a literary champion. Dryden wrote Absalom and Achitophel that year, turning politics into art. His poem was not a simple attack it was a masterwork that used wit, satire, and biblical gravitas to defend Charles II and expose the danger of rebellion.

9. The Biblical Allegory Explained:
   Dryden framed the political crisis as a retelling of the biblical rebellion of Absalom against his father David. This allowed him to criticize real people under the mask of biblical figures:

   • King David = Charles II (merciful king, wise ruler).

   • Absalom = Duke of Monmouth (handsome, loved, but misguided son).

   • Achitophel = Earl of Shaftesbury (scheming, ambitious adviser).

   • Zimri = Duke of Buckingham (foolish and reckless noble).

   • Shimei = Radical politicians who stirred hatred against the king).
     By using the Bible, Dryden elevated the king’s cause to divine legitimacy and made rebellion appear sinful and doomed.

10. The Broader Significance:
    The poem was more than just propaganda it was a reflection of the fragile state of England. It dealt with issues still relevant today: loyalty versus ambition, religion versus politics, order versus chaos. Dryden’s support for hereditary monarchy and stability echoed the fear of another civil war. The success of Absalom and Achitophel showed how literature could shape political thought. It became the model for later satirists like Alexander Pope.

Political Context of Absalom and Achitophel

Exclusion Crisis

The poem was written during the Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681), one of the most heated political debates in England. The main issue was whether James, Duke of York, who was openly Catholic, should be excluded from becoming the next king. England was a Protestant nation, and many people feared that if a Catholic king came to power, it would threaten their religion, freedoms, and government.

King Charles II’s Position

King Charles II, the reigning monarch, strongly opposed the Exclusion Bill. He wanted to keep the traditional line of succession and protect the rights of his brother James. For Charles, allowing Parliament to choose or reject an heir would weaken the monarchy and open the door to endless political conflicts. His stand was about protecting both the crown and national stability.

The Duke of Monmouth as a Popular Choice

On the other side, many Protestants looked to James Scott, Duke of Monmouth, the illegitimate but Protestant son of Charles II, as an alternative heir. Monmouth was handsome, popular with the common people, and seen as a hopeful figure for Protestant England. In the poem, Dryden presents him as Absalom, the beloved son of King David (Charles), who becomes a symbol of misguided ambition and political temptation.

Earl of Shaftesbury’s Role

The most forceful leader of the Exclusion movement was Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, represented as Achitophel in the poem. Shaftesbury was clever, persuasive, and highly ambitious. He encouraged Monmouth to challenge his father and supported the Exclusion Bill with all his power. Dryden portrays him as a dangerous figure—like the biblical Achitophel—who betrayed his king out of selfish motives.

Dryden’s Political Purpose

Through Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden sought to defend King Charles II and the monarchy. He used satire to paint the king’s enemies as corrupt, ambitious, and deceitful. At the same time, he highlighted the dangers of rebellion and the importance of loyalty to rightful authority. The poem is therefore not just literature but also a political weapon, supporting the king during a time of national crisis.

Allegorical Structure of Absalom and Achitophel 

◎What is Allegory?

• An allegory is a story in which characters and events stand for real people and situations. Dryden used the biblical story of Absalom’s rebellion against King David to represent the political crisis in England during Charles II’s reign.

1. The Biblical Story (Outer Layer):

   • David is the king of Israel, chosen by God, known for his wisdom and mercy.

   • Absalom, David’s son, is beautiful, popular, and ambitious. He allows himself to be persuaded into rebellion.

   • Achitophel is David’s trusted adviser but betrays him by plotting rebellion and encouraging Absalom’s ambition.

   • The rebellion ultimately fails, and Absalom dies tragically.
     This biblical framework provides Dryden with a moral lesson: rebellion against lawful authority is both sinful and destructive.

   • Dryden’s surface story comes from the Old Testament (2 Samuel).

2. The Political Reality (Inner Layer):
   Behind the biblical figures stand real historical people from Charles II’s court:

   • David = King Charles II: Just like David, Charles is shown as merciful and patient, even forgiving his enemies.

   • Absalom = James Scott, Duke of Monmouth: Charles’s illegitimate son, attractive and popular among Protestants, seen as a possible replacement for his Catholic uncle James, Duke of York.

   • Achitophel = Earl of Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper): Clever and ambitious, he pushes Monmouth to rebel just as Achitophel pushes Absalom.

   • Zimri = Duke of Buckingham (George Villiers): Portrayed as inconsistent and foolish, always changing sides in politics.

   • Shimei = Radical Whig politicians: Represented those who stirred up public hatred against Charles.
     Through this mapping, readers could instantly recognize the satire behind the biblical disguise.

3. How the Allegory Works:
   Dryden uses the double meaning of allegory to blend past and present. Readers see a biblical rebellion and an English political crisis happening together.

   • By comparing Charles II to David, Dryden portrays him as God’s chosen ruler, not just a political king.

   • By making Shaftesbury into Achitophel, Dryden transforms a cunning politician into a biblical villain, magnifying his betrayal.

   • Monmouth, like Absalom, is not condemned as evil but shown as misguided and manipulated, which reflects Charles’s love for him despite the danger.
     Allegory here is not just disguise—it is a powerful tool to elevate Charles’s cause and show the Whigs as rebels against God’s order.

4. Purpose of the Allegory:
   Dryden had clear goals in using allegory:

   • To praise King Charles II by presenting him as merciful, wise, and divinely chosen.

   • To warn Monmouth (Absalom) not to rebel, showing that even beloved sons who turn against their fathers meet tragic ends.

   • To condemn Shaftesbury (Achitophel) as an ambitious traitor whose cunning endangers the peace of the nation.

   • To convince readers that supporting rebellion or the Exclusion Bill was both politically dangerous and morally sinful.
     In short, the allegory gave Dryden’s poem the force of religious truth + political propaganda combined.

5. Effect of the Allegory:
   The allegory had a strong impact because it was easy to recognize and yet carried the authority of scripture.

   • Ordinary readers and political elites alike could see the parallels between biblical figures and real people.

   • It made Charles’s position seem sacred and unquestionable, as though opposing him was opposing God.

   • It humiliated Shaftesbury and the Whigs, painting them as villains in a story everyone knew.

   • It elevated political poetry into high art, since Dryden was not just insulting opponents but weaving them into a grand biblical drama.
     This combination of literary brilliance + political relevance is what makes Absalom and Achitophel a masterpiece of allegorical satire.

Thematic Depth of Absalom and Achitophel

• Theme of Rebellion and Authority
  The poem strongly emphasizes that rebellion against lawful rulers is unnatural and destructive. Absalom’s rebellion, like Monmouth’s political ambition, is presented as misguided and dangerous because it goes against both family ties and divine order. Dryden suggests that authority comes from God and must be respected, regardless of personal or political desires. By showing rebellion as sinful and doomed to fail, he reassures readers that monarchy is the safest form of government in a fragile society like Restoration England.

• Theme of Ambition and Manipulation
  Ambition is one of the central forces in the poem. Absalom himself is portrayed as brave, handsome, and loved by the people, but he is not naturally rebellious. It is Achitophel’s manipulation that turns his ambition into a threat against his father. This shows how even noble or good-natured individuals can be corrupted by political schemers. The theme reflects the wider truth of politics—that personal ambition, when unchecked, becomes a danger to national peace.

• Theme of Legitimacy and Succession
  Dryden highlights the debate over who has the rightful claim to rule. Monmouth, though popular and Protestant, is illegitimate, while James, Duke of York, though Catholic, is the lawful heir. The poem insists that legitimacy and hereditary succession must be respected, because popularity is fleeting and unstable. In this way, Dryden defends the principle of monarchy as a continuous, God-given order, more reliable than the shifting opinions of the crowd or Parliament.

• Theme of Religion and Politics
  Religion was deeply tied to politics in Restoration England, and Dryden uses this theme to show how dangerous it can be when religious fears are used for political gain. The Whigs tried to exploit anti-Catholic fears to block James’s succession, but Dryden warns that such tactics divide the nation and create mistrust. By presenting Charles II as a tolerant, merciful king and Shaftesbury as a manipulator of religious fear, Dryden argues for stability over fanaticism. This theme remains relevant today, where religion is often used as a political tool.

• Theme of Loyalty and Betrayal
  The poem contrasts loyalty with betrayal in powerful ways. David (Charles II) is shown as loyal to his people, merciful even to his enemies, and devoted to peace. In contrast, Achitophel (Shaftesbury) is a symbol of betrayal, turning against his king and persuading others to do the same. Absalom’s betrayal is particularly tragic because it is both political and personal—a son rebelling against his father. Through this theme, Dryden warns that betrayal destroys trust and harmony in both family and nation.

• Theme of Mercy and Justice
  Charles II is celebrated in the poem for his quality of mercy, just like King David in the Bible. Instead of punishing rebels with cruelty, he shows patience and forgiveness. This theme elevates Charles as a wise ruler who balances justice with mercy, unlike his enemies who thrive on cruelty and division. By portraying the king as merciful, Dryden appeals to the reader’s sense of morality, making Charles appear not only lawful but also morally superior to his rivals.

• Theme of Politics as Performance
  Dryden recognizes that politics is not only about laws and policies but also about persuasion, image, and rhetoric. Achitophel spreads fear, rumors, and false promises to gain followers, while Dryden himself uses poetry as a weapon to defend the king. This theme highlights how words, speeches, and writings shape public opinion. It is an early recognition of what we now call political propaganda. In this way, the poem anticipates modern ideas about how leaders and parties “perform” to win public trust.

• Theme of Order versus Chaos
  The final theme is the conflict between order and chaos. Dryden makes it clear that rebellion leads to instability, civil war, and national ruin. By contrast, obedience to the rightful king brings peace, order, and continuity. This reflects the Restoration fear of another civil war like the one that led to Charles I’s execution. For Dryden, supporting monarchy is not only political loyalty but also a way of preserving social order against the forces of chaos, ambition, and division.

The Political Landscape from historical context :

The Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681)

The poem is closely linked to the Exclusion Crisis, a major political conflict in England. Anti-Catholic politicians wanted to stop James, Duke of York (Charles II’s brother) from becoming king because he had converted to Catholicism. They feared that a Catholic ruler could threaten Protestantism and the country’s religious freedoms.

The Popish Plot (1678)

The Popish Plot was a fabricated conspiracy that claimed Catholics planned to murder King Charles II and take over the throne. Even though it was false, it caused widespread panic and strengthened anti-Catholic sentiment. Dryden reflects this climate of fear and suspicion in the poem.

The Duke of Monmouth

James Scott, Duke of Monmouth, the illegitimate but Protestant son of Charles II, became popular among the people. Some politicians supported him as an alternative to James, which added to the tension. In the poem, he is represented as Absalom, showing a son who is easily misled by ambitious advisors.

Earl of Shaftesbury

Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, is represented as Achitophel in the poem. He was a clever and ambitious politician who encouraged Monmouth’s popularity and pushed for the Exclusion Bill. Dryden uses satire to show him as a dangerous manipulator who threatens the stability of the kingdom.

Dryden’s Political Motivation

Dryden wrote Absalom and Achitophel to defend King Charles II and the lawful succession of James, Duke of York. He wanted to warn against rebellion, expose political ambition, and promote loyalty to the monarchy. The poem is both a literary masterpiece and a political statement, reflecting the tension and fears of Restoration England.

Satire in Verse: Dryden’s Artistic Weapon in Absalom and Achitophel

• Poetry with a Satirical Purpose
  The poem is written in heroic couplets—pairs of rhymed lines that give the work rhythm, balance, and elegance. But Dryden doesn’t use this verse form for romance or grand epics. Instead, he turns the beauty of poetry into a sharp weapon of satire. The polished verse highlights the ugliness of political deceit and ambition, making the contrast even more striking.

• Biblical Allegory as Political Satire
  Dryden retells the biblical story of Absalom’s rebellion against his father David as a way to comment on the Exclusion Crisis in England. This use of allegory makes the satire clever because the story feels timeless, but readers of his time could easily recognize Charles II as David, Monmouth as Absalom, and Shaftesbury as Achitophel. By hiding real politicians under biblical masks, Dryden made his criticism safer yet sharper.

• Sharp Character Portraits
  A big part of the satire lies in how Dryden paints his characters. Shaftesbury (Achitophel) is shown as intelligent but dangerously manipulative. Monmouth (Absalom) is described as handsome, brave, and loved by the people but also foolish and weak-willed. Dryden’s portraits are both vivid and biting—they reveal the true nature of people while making readers smile at the cleverness of the comparisons.

• Irony and Double-Edged Praise
  One of Dryden’s most effective techniques is irony. He often praises characters with qualities that sound good at first but turn out to be criticisms when looked at closely. For example, Absalom’s charm and popularity become signs of his immaturity and recklessness. Achitophel’s intelligence becomes a tool for evil. This double-edged style makes the satire powerful because it exposes flaws without openly shouting abuse.

• Witty and Polished Tone
  Unlike angry or vulgar satire, Dryden’s satire is witty, graceful, and full of clever lines. His choice of heroic couplets adds a sense of order and harmony, which contrasts with the disorder caused by political rebellion. This polished style makes his satire enjoyable to read while still carrying a serious warning. Readers are entertained and educated at the same time.

• Turning Politics into Lasting Art
  Dryden could have written a pamphlet against Shaftesbury and Monmouth, but that would have been quickly forgotten. By writing in verse, he transforms a temporary political crisis into a timeless work of literature. The poem doesn’t just attack individuals—it reflects on universal themes like ambition, loyalty, succession, and power. That’s why the satire still speaks to readers centuries later.

• Human Touch in Verse
  What makes this satire stand out is its emotional depth. It doesn’t just mock politicians as empty figures—it shows them as human beings with ambition, temptation, weakness, and betrayal. David (Charles II) is shown as merciful and patient, Absalom as misguided by love for power, and Achitophel as corrupted by selfish motives. The poetic form makes these emotions more vivid, giving the satire both sharpness and humanity.

Biblical Parallels in Absalom and Achitophel

Absalom as Monmouth

In the poem, Absalom is the son of King David who rebels against his father. This character represents James Scott, Duke of Monmouth, the illegitimate but popular son of King Charles II. Just like Absalom, Monmouth was admired for his charm and bravery but was misguided and manipulated by ambitious advisors to challenge the rightful king.

David as King Charles II

King David symbolizes King Charles II. David is shown as wise, merciful, and patient with his rebellious son. Similarly, Charles II is portrayed as a king who forgives and tolerates his enemies, even while they plot against him. The comparison emphasizes the king’s legitimacy, authority, and moral strength.

Achitophel as Shaftesbury

Achitophel, the cunning adviser in the Bible, is the allegorical figure of Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury. In both stories, this adviser is clever, persuasive, and ambitious, but ultimately dangerous. In the poem, Achitophel convinces Absalom/Monmouth to rebel against his father/king, showing how ambition and manipulation can lead to chaos.

Zimri and Other Figures

Dryden also includes other biblical figures to represent real-life politicians:

• Zimri = Duke of Buckingham: Seen as inconsistent and foolish, always changing political sides.

• Shimei = Radical Whig politicians: Represent those stirring hatred against the king.

Purpose of the Allegory

By using biblical figures, Dryden makes his political critique safer, clearer, and more powerful. Readers recognize the contemporary English political struggle in the story of David and Absalom, while the biblical framework gives the poem moral authority. The allegory shows that rebellion against a lawful ruler is both a political and moral mistake.

Character Studies

Major Characters

• Absalom – Represents James Scott, Duke of Monmouth

• Achitophel – Represents Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury

• David – Represents King Charles II

Minor Characters

• Zimri – Represents Duke of Buckingham

• Shimei – Represents Radical Whig politicians

• Ahithophel’s followers / Other advisors – Represent various conspirators and political figures of the time

Absalom (James Scott, Duke of Monmouth)

Absalom represents Monmouth, the illegitimate but popular son of Charles II. He is described as handsome, charming, courageous, and loved by the people, which makes him naturally appealing to the public. However, he is also naive, impressionable, and easily misled by Achitophel, who manipulates his ambitions for political gain. Dryden shows that popularity and charm alone are not enough for wise leadership; without guidance and a sense of duty, they can lead to rebellion and chaos. Absalom’s tragic flaw is his ambition mixed with weakness, which makes him a sympathetic yet flawed figure.

Achitophel (Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury)

Achitophel is the archetype of the clever but dangerous adviser. Representing Shaftesbury, he is intelligent, persuasive, and politically ambitious, using his wit and influence to manipulate Absalom/Monmouth against his father/king. Dryden portrays Achitophel as self-serving and unscrupulous, emphasizing how clever individuals can corrupt others for personal or political gain. He is both admired for his skill and feared for his treachery, showing the double-edged nature of political intelligence.

David (King Charles II)

David symbolizes King Charles II, and is portrayed as wise, patient, just, and merciful. Unlike Absalom or Achitophel, David/Charles acts with restraint and moral authority, forgiving even those who rebel against him. Dryden emphasizes his legitimacy and the stability he provides, contrasting sharply with the impulsiveness of Absalom and the cunning of Achitophel. He embodies the ideal monarch, showing that true leadership combines strength with justice and mercy.

Supporting Characters

Dryden also uses other biblical figures to represent real-life politicians, giving further depth to the story:

• Zimri = Duke of Buckingham: Shown as fickle and inconsistent, switching political allegiances for personal gain.

• Shimei = Radical Whigs: Represent those stirring hatred and rebellion against the king, demonstrating how public opinion can be manipulated.

Conclusion

Absalom and Achitophel remains one of John Dryden’s most celebrated works because it combines poetic brilliance with sharp political insight. Through its clever use of biblical allegory, satire, and heroic couplets, the poem addresses issues of rebellion, ambition, loyalty, and morality in a way that feels both artistic and instructive.

Its lasting impact lies in how it transforms a specific political crisis—the Exclusion Crisis—into a timeless reflection on human nature and governance. The characters of Absalom, Achitophel, and David are not just historical or political figures; they are symbolic representations of ambition, manipulation, and moral authority, which continue to resonate with readers today.

The poem is still relevant because it explores universal themes of power, justice, and ethical leadership. Even in modern times, it reminds us how ambition can be misused, loyalty can be tested, and wise leadership is essential for societal stability.

In short, Absalom and Achitophel is not only a masterpiece of political satire but also a timeless guide to understanding human behavior and governance.

References :

Barad, Dilip. "Absalom and Achitophel: Worksheet." Dilip Barad | Teacher Blog,

4 January 2021. https://blog.dilipbarad.com/2021/01/absalom-and-achitophel-

worksheet.html

Barad, Dilip, and Nahum Tate. “(PDF) Worksheet on Absalom and Achitophel by Dryden.” ResearchGate,25August2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/394929948_Worksheet_on_Absalom_and_Achitophel_by_Dryden. Accessed 2 September 2025.

Dryden, John. Absalom and Achitophel. First published 1681.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Absalom-and-Achitophel

The Holy Bible. 2 Samuel chapters 13–19.

https://bible.usccb.org/bible/2samuel/13